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Human Papillomaviruses (HPVs) are a broad category of diseases which comprise more than 200 related viruses. Papillomaviruses are small, double-stranded DNA viruses.

More than 40 of these can be easily transmitted through sexual interaction, from the skin or mucous membranes of other infected individuals. HPVs are also disseminated by vaginal, anal and oral sexual activity. In accordance with research conducted by the Centers for Disease Control (CDC), HPV is the most frequent sexually transmitted disease that affects both genders. In fact, the prevalence is so high that between 80% to 90% of men and women who are sexually active will contract the infection at one point or another in their lifetime.

Moreover, nearly 79 million Americans are infected with HPV currently. In addition, about 14 million individuals are newly affected on an annual basis. These statistics underline the assessment made by CDC that HPV is insanely common. Other key points regarding human papillomavirus are that it can even result in genital warts and induce several types of cancers. It may also be spread during birth in some cases which then causes genital or respiratory system issues. Also, there is no discernible cure for HPV yet although effective vaccinations are recommended for adolescent children.

Causes

Human papillomavirus typically enters the body through a break or fissure in the skin.

Once it permeates the skin, the agent travels to the cells of the multiple layers of the skin, which are infected by the HPV. Once this is achieved, the virus is able to replicate and multiply inside the body.

Conventionally, the time taken between first contracting HPV and the emergence of lesions can be anywhere between months and even years in some cases. There is also a contingent of affected individuals who are completely unaware that they are suffering from HPV.

Like we mentioned before, HPV may be transmitted when a person comes in contact with another’s skin. This can incite issues such as skin warts i.e. plantar or common warts that may be acquired through a cut for instance. HPV can also cause warts of the genital variety, which can be quite contagious and are mostly contracted through sexual interaction with an infected person. Activities which may result in HPV may simply include kissing or making contact with private parts such as the scrotum, vagina, vulva or anus. Intercourse is obviously part of this as well.

Additionally, there are risk factors that pertain to HPV. For instance, age is one such determinant. Children and teenagers are generally at the greatest risk of contracting the disease. The number of sexual partners an individual has over a period of time is also an important variable. The higher the number, the greater the risk attached of developing genital HPV. Lastly, the immune system plays an important role as well. People who have an immune system that is compromised by factors like HIV/AIDS, organ transplant or simply consuming medication that affects it adversely, are at great risk also.  

Symptoms

The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) has stated that warts associated with most HPV infections subside without any signs or symptoms whatsoever. However, the virus is still present in the infected person’s body. This is why there are cases where they may engage in a sexual encounter with another individual and pass on the HPV to that person unknowingly.

In cases where the virus does not automatically abate, it can create considerable health complications. Examples include genital and throat warts. The latter is also known as recurrent respiratory papillomatosis. HPV is also identified as the reason for cervical cancer and other cancers found in the genitals, head and neck region.

Furthermore, the types of HPV that cause warts are different from those which create cancerous cells. Therefore, having genital warts borne by HPV does not mean that the person will also develop cancer. However, cancers which are incited by HPV may show no symptoms until the cancer has reached an advanced stage unfortunately. Regular screenings can help in the diagnosis of HPV related health issues.

This is precisely why regular consultations and checkups with doctors are imperative. In several cases, cervical cancer may be prevented by observing an abnormality in the characteristics of cells that if left untreated, can gradually develop into cancer.

A pap test may be undertaken since it can detect abnormal cells if they are located in the individual’s cervix. Although it does not directly a test for cancer or HPV, the test is able to discern an anomaly in cell alterations that are typically caused by HPV.

There isn’t a test for high risk HPV however, especially that which may affect the vulva, penis, anus or throat. Also, the HPV itself does not manifest any symptoms until and unless it has already developed into a cancer.

Treatment

As it stands, there is no medical treatment for constant HPV infections that are not linked to irregular cell changes. However, genital warts, benign respiratory tract tumors and precancerous changes inside the cervix can be treated. Adequate methods include cryosurgery, which is executed by freezing which obliterates the tissues.

Also, a loop electrosurgical excision procedure or LEEP, which is the removal of cervical tissue with the use of a hot wire loop is another measure. So is surgical conization, which is done with a scalpel, a laser or in some cases, both in order to remove a cone shaped piece of tissue from the cervical canal. Another measure is called vaporization conization and uses a laser to destroy the cervical tissue.

Additionally, treatments for other benign respiratory tract tumors include topical chemicals and surgeries such as excisional, cryo, electro and laser. Other treatments are being put through the rigors of clinical trials and tests. These include a randomized controlled trial that can determine whether treatment of anal precancerous lesions can reduce the risk of anal cancer in those people who are HIV positive.

You may have heard the terminology circumcised or circumcision at one point or another. Circumcision is basically the removal of the foreskin that envelopes the head of the flaccid penis. Males are born with a layer of skin, which is also referred to as prepuce, at the front of their genitalia i.e. the glans. The procedure whereby this film of extraneous skin is eliminated from their unerect penis is called circumcision.

Insight

The amount of skin attached to the anterior varies from one male to another. While one newborn may have a virtually nonexistent foreskin, another child may have enough that it protrudes from their glans. This is what causes the erection of certain males to display a loose foreskin that peeks from the head of their penis.

In uncircumcised males, the head of their manhood is a shade of pink. This becomes clear when the head of their genitalia emanates in the process of an erection. This inadvertently gives the penis a two-tone image.

With regards to newborns, their foreskin is attached to the area beneath their penis and gradually detaches in the first few years of their lives in the vast majority of cases. When the procedure is performed, the foreskin disconnects simply through a number of different surgical techniques.

Cost-Benefit Analysis

In most cases, if a disease or disorder develops in an individual, it is understood that they will seek treatment with the hope of improving their health. In this particular instance, circumcision is often a choice. In fact, religion is one of the foremost reasons for the performance of circumcisions.

The rules and regulations of both Islam (Khitan) and Judaism (Brit Milah) dictate that newborns must be circumcised. Another rationale for circumcisions includes personal decisions, aesthetic preference, and reduction of health risks.  

Pros

Nevertheless, circumcision is a unique medical proposition based on the fact that we can discuss its benefits and drawbacks. First of all, there are several advantages to the operation. Infants who undergo the procedure are less likely to develop urinary tract infections (UTIs) for one. This is particularly true in the first few months post birth. UTI is a recurring disease in newborn males and those who remain uncircumcised are 10 times more likely to contract this affliction.  

Furthermore, circumcision also diminishes the risk of penile cancer. Research has also indicated that those who are subjected to this procedure are less prone to sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) such as Chlamydia, Gonorrhea and Genital Herpes.

Concerns pertaining to the penis, such as agitation, swellings, and infections are also more common in uncircumcised males. Also, circumcised genitalia is considered more sanitary, since it is more effortless to keep it clean compared to uncircumcised ones.

Cons

On the other hand, there are a few risks attached to circumcision, a caveat that applies to all medical procedures. Fortunately, these disadvantages are fundamentally insignificant, although there are cases where complications may arise. For example, any circumcision-related predicaments in newborns are only found in between 0.2% to 2% of cases. Out of these, the most common are minor bleeding and infections. Thankfully, both concerns can be rectified with the adequate treatment.

Another issue with circumcision is that the procedure can prove painful for newborns. This is precisely why pain relief medication is administered to babies when they are circumcised. However, the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) suggests that newborns who are circumcised should be given anesthesia, which has since become standard practice.

There are two main categories of local anesthetic that may be used on newborns to manage their discomfort. One is a topical ointment, which is applied to their penis and warrants around half an hour before it is entirely effective. The other is provided through an injection and needs less time to be active. Also, acetaminophen is administered by some pediatricians. It is known to have a longer lasting effect and may last hours after the circumcision has been performed.  

Preparation and Performance

Now we will discuss the prerequisites and practice of circumcision. In major cases, the procedure is completed while the newborn is still admitted to the hospital. There are multiple practitioners who have the training to perform a circumcision, such as pediatricians and obstetricians.  

It is mandatory for parents to sign a consent form before the operation. This is par for the course and is really a formality. In cases involving children and adults too, a circumcision is scheduled in a hospital or surgical center on an outpatient basis. This is defined as a situation where the patient is discharged on the same day.

We can delve into the actual procedure as well. It is performed by the usual suspects, such as pediatricians, who are doctors that deal exclusively with cases involving children. Other trained personnel that may do a circumcision include surgeons and urologists. Like we mentioned before, circumcisions that are done owing to religious reasons may be completed by those who are skilled in the matter, since the method may possibly differ based on the religion.

As far as newborns are concerned, they are placed tenderly on their backs and their arms and legs are kept at a distance from their genitals. The anesthetic is then administered via cream or injection so that it is numb.

Doctors performing the procedure may use one of several methods at their disposal. This is typically determined by the physician’s choice. The most popular techniques that are executed are called the Gomco clamp, Plastibell device, and the Mogen clamp.

All three of the aforementioned approaches involve slashing the circulation of blood to the foreskin so that there is no bleeding when the doctor slices the foreskin. The entire process of circumcision takes a total of 15 to 30 minutes maximum.

Even so, there are innumerable instances where women experience difficulty when they are expecting. Despite exercising due diligence, pregnancy complications may introduce various intricacies to the equation. These obstacles can affect the mother’s health and the well-being of the fetus. Such issues can make childbirth a high-risk procedure and be a concern for those involved.

So what are the potential predicaments that pregnant women may encounter? Let’s take a look.

Miscarriage

Furthermore, in terms of symptoms, the first indication of a miscarriage is that vaginal spotting or bleeding may appear. Regardless of the potential advent of a miscarriage, a pregnant female should consult a gynecologist at the first instance if there is bleeding. If the specialists suspect a miscarriage is underway, they may order an immediate ultrasound to gauge if the uterus is stable.

According to the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, a miscarriage is the most frequent cause of pregnancy loss. Research has shown that chemical pregnancies account for up to 75% of all miscarriages. This scenario transpires in the aftermath of implantation which gives rise to excessive bleeding when the woman experiences her period.

Causes of miscarriage include, but are not limited to hormonal problems and maternal health concerns. Also, a woman’s lifestyle and ill-conceived choices may be the reason for a miscarriage. For instance, if a woman who is expecting does not abandon her smoking habit, has a poor diet or does not kick drug use could lead to a miscarriage. Malnutrition and abundance of caffeine are other potential reasons. So are maternal age and maternal trauma.  

Likewise, there is no definitive list of symptoms that a pregnant woman may exhibit. However, the most common red flags include different degrees of back pain, which may be considerably worse than menstrual cramping. Weight loss is another potential signal and so are regular contractions, which may occur every five minutes or so.

Preeclampsia

This is a condition that transpires exclusively when a woman is expecting and entails extraordinarily high blood pressure and protein in their urine or liver. Also, they may have kidney abnormalities in the second trimester.

Preeclampsia is a severe ailment that affects roughly 5% of all pregnant women. Typically, most females who are expecting a child develop moderate signs as their due date approaches. However, with adequate care and conservative measures, both the mother and her newborn child do not suffer any consequences.

If not diagnosed properly and left unchecked, preeclampsia can cause deterioration of the woman and baby’s health quickly. It may incite organ issue and potentially life-threatening scenarios as well. This may cause an early delivery or a caesarian section, a medical procedure where surgical equipment is used to deliver a child.

Moreover, females who are in line to become mothers for the first time are most susceptible to contracting preeclampsia. Those with a track record of suffering from preeclampsia or gestational hypertension may also be prone to the affliction.

In addition, pregnant women who are carrying more than one child or those who are aged 40 and above may also face complications. The same rules apply to females with high blood pressure and those who are obese also.

For the mother, the possible impact of preeclampsia includes liver or renal failure and probable cardiovascular concerns at some point in the future. The potential damage is far greater for the unborn child. They may suffer from diminished oxygen and nutrition. This transpires when preeclampsia restricts the placenta from obtaining ample blood. This may result in the child being born with significantly lower weight.

Gestational Diabetes

In the United States, between 2 and 10 percent of expectant mothers contract gestational diabetes. Although the numbers may sound promising, this disease must not be underestimated, given that its severity may increase. Pregnant women are frequently tested in a glucose screening to observe if they are not victims of gestational diabetes.

In cases where the screening has a negative result, pregnant women are monitored by professionals. With the proper care, a majority of women are able to maintain their blood sugar levels with the right diet and exercise (there is a specific exercise regimen that can be adhered to during pregnancy). This allows them to deliver a healthy child eventually.

Mothers who suffer from gestational diabetes are also at greater risk of developing Type 2 diabetes in the future as well. Warning signs of gestational diabetes are the presence of sugar in urine. Obviously, it is not apparent to the naked eye but a test at the doctor’s office can determine its presence. Excessive thirst, considerable exhaustion and the feeling of nausea are other symptoms of gestational diabetes.

Placenta Previa

Another case of pregnancy-related issues is called placenta previa. The placenta lies lower than usual in the uterus which is how it covers part of the cervix. The placenta severs from the uterine wall while the cervix starts to dilate during labor.

Symptoms of placenta previa vary on a case by case basis but the most frequent signal is pain-free bleeding during the third trimester of pregnancy. Additionally, premature contractions, the child’s irregular position in the womb are also signs of placenta previa.

The human body has thousands of different bacteria and microorganisms living inside it. The wonderful part about this is that they work on a mutually beneficial relationship by aiding the functions in the body, and in turn, being able to survive with ease.

However, there can be times when the microorganisms that come into the body aren’t so gracious. Parasitic infections occur because of a negative relationship between the microorganisms and the body of the host.  In this case, these parasites rely on the host in order to survive, but they also cause great harm by invading organs, reproducing, growing and releasing toxins within the body.

The Major Parasitic Organisms

There is a wide range of parasitic organisms which can infect the human body. Despite this diversity, they can be classified into three major groups, namely:

• Protozoa – These are single-cell microorganisms that multiply and live inside the body. They are hard to detect with the naked eye. A common example of a protozoa infection includes giardiasis. This is caused by the protozoa microorganism, Giardia, which enters the body through infected water.

• Helminths – These are multi-cell organisms, which can live either outside or inside the body with ease. They usually enter the body through ingestion of their eggs. Examples of helminths include flatworms, tapeworms, roundworms and more.

• Ectoparasites – These are also known as multi-cell organisms but they largely live or stay on the outside of the body. Ectoparasites are also found on other hosts such as cats, dogs, livestock and more. Common examples of ectoparasites include fleas, ticks, mosquitoes, mites and more.

All three of the organisms mentioned above can cause infection of one form or the other, which can harm the host. Certain parasitic microorganisms also appear to work together which makes them easier to spread. For example, Mosquitoes are ectoparasites that can carry the bacteria which causes malaria. Malaria is a parasitic protozoan and easily gets transmitted to the humans that the mosquitoes come in contact with.

Protozoa and helminths, in particular, can also be spread when they become foodborne. These microorganisms are easy to spread to other people from different sources such as contaminated soil, waste matter such as feces of animals or humans, undercooked or raw food, contaminated or polluted water and even blood from an infected person. Even fruits and vegetables grown in infected soil can spread the microorganisms to someone.

Risk of Getting Parasitic Infections

Parasitic infections are more common in tropical or subtropical regions, but they also thrive in the United States. The risk that people face with parasitic infections is dependent on various factors, including the kind of parasite a person has come in contact with.

The overall health of a person (specifically, the health of their immune system), travel history and hygiene habits make a marked difference here. While some people might not be at risk at all to parasitic infections, others might be more susceptible to them based on these factors.

The following are various scenarios which increase the odds of a person developing a parasitic infection:

• If a person is already ill or they have a compromised immune system.
• If a person travels a lot in the subtropical and tropical regions of the world.
• If a person consumes food which is improperly prepared and made from infected ingredients.
• If there is a lack of clean drinking water and non-filtered water being consumed regularly.
• If a person swims frequently in ponds, lakes or rivers that are infected and can contain more than one kind of parasitic microorganism.
• If a person works with soil or indulges in farming of fruits and vegetables regularly.
• If a person works in child-care. Children are not always the most hygienic and can pass on the eggs of ringworms, pinworms or more. Same is true for nursing homes.
• If a person has an outdoor pet such as a cat which can pass on the parasite to their owners.

All these scenarios can contribute to a person developing a parasitic infection. Immediate medical attention is always necessary because by the time the symptoms become visible or known, the infection might have progressed to an advanced state.

Certain infections also have no proper cure such as toxoplasmosis. In this condition, a cured person might still possess non-dormant parasitic strains of toxoplasmosis which can be passed on to their children and create complications in pregnancy and child development.

Practicing Prevention

Due to the common prevalence of these infections, it is a good idea to practice precaution and adopt a few healthy habits that can reduce the chances of getting parasitic infections. The following are some simple habits that you can apply with ease:

• Wash hands frequently, particularly if you have been playing with your pets, handling dirt and soil or after using the bathroom.
• Always cook food at the recommended temperature so as to kill all the bacteria in the meat.
• Wash all kitchen utensils, appliances and surfaces that come in contact with raw meat.
• Avoid drinking unfiltered water and try to drink filtered or bottled water if you are traveling. The CDC has recommendations you should follow for just about every country in the world.
• Do not go into lakes, pools, ponds or rivers unless you know that they are completely unpolluted. Even then, avoid swallowing any water.
• When cleaning pet litter or feces, always use gloves and wash hands thoroughly
• Always wash all raw fruits and vegetables, particularly the ones that are meant to be eaten with the skin on.
• When eating raw meat in dishes such as sushi and Carpaccio, always go to a reputable restaurant.

Keep in mind that parasitic infections can occur even when you are practicing these healthy precautions. In this case, if you suspect that you or someone else might have developed a parasitic infection, seek medical attention as soon as possible. Early detection can play a vital role in preventing the infection from becoming life-threatening and also help to stunt the spread of the infection to others.